HORSEPOWER
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Interactions between China, Mongolia and the steppe 2000-0 BCE
From the King of Rong to
the First Emperor of China:
A Journey Through the Hexi Corridor in 2024
During my recent trip through the Hexi Corridor with the Horsepower team, I had the chance to explore several fascinating sites and museums, but one experience stands out above all: the newly opened Chariot Museum, which opened in August 2023. This museum, with its impressive collection of chariots and gold artifacts, offers more than just stunning objects—it presents a glimpse into the rich, often overlooked history of the people who shaped early China. Walking through the museum for the first time was like dropping a stone into a pond; the ripples it created in my mind have continued to expand, challenging and reshaping my understanding of these ancient cultures.
The Chariot Museum is dedicated to the Majiayuan site in Gansu Province, an extraordinary archaeological discovery that dates back around 2,350 years. The site, located in Zhangjiachuan Hui Autonomous County, is an ancient cemetery that has revealed a wealth of artifacts, including chariots, bronze pieces, glass beads, and gold ornaments. But what really captivated me was the story these objects tell about a lost group of people at the crossroads of East and West.
I still remember the first time I encountered Majiayuan in a presentation by Raphael (Dr. Wong Wai Kwan), a former DPhil student at Oxford University, now a successful curator in Hong Kong. At the time, we were more struck by the sheer quantity of gold and silver found at the site, rather than the deeper archaeological questions it raised. The intricacy of the gold artifacts, with their vivid iconography, was enough to spark awe. But the real significance of Majiayuan goes far beyond its treasures.
Fig. 1 Ram-shaped gold ornament at Majiayuan
Discovered in 2001 after a local grave robbery alerted authorities to the site, Majiayuan has since been the focus of years of excavation. The site was named one of the "Top Ten Archaeological Discoveries in China" in 2006, even before full excavation had begun. Since then, the site has provided scholars with an astonishing array of materials, ranging from gold ornaments to chariot remains. One particularly intriguing find—a ram-shaped gold ornament—has led some researchers to speculate about long-distance contact between ancient China and Persian cultures to the west (Fig. 1).
Despite the richness of these discoveries, the question of who the Majiayuan tomb occupants were, and how they amassed such wealth, remains a mystery. Archaeologists agree that materials and technologies from distant regions must have travelled to Majiayuan, particularly gold—a metal that was not native to central China. The sophisticated gold-working techniques found at Majiayuan, such as gilding and granulation, suggest that the people there were part of a broader tradition of gold craftsmanship that extended across regions like Xinjiang, Altay, and Mongolia.
Even more fascinating are the horses found at Majiayuan. Unlike central China, where horses were typically buried whole, the Majiayuan site features horse heads—an odd yet significant detail that potentially connects the culture to traditions found on the Mongolian plateau. And then there are the chariots (Fig.2). Nearly seventy have been excavated, offering clues about the people who used them.
Fig. 2 Reconstruction of the Majiayuan chariot
These chariots share structural similarities with those from central China during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, but with a key difference: the carriages are smaller and narrower, suggesting they may not have been used differently. In Central China, three persons need to stand in the same carriage, with one chariot driver in the middle, one soldier equipped with long-shaft bronze weapons (e.g., ge-blage) and one archer on either side of the carriage. Those at Majiayuan appear to be much smaller in terms of carriage space. As noted by Prof Chris Gosden, it might be more of ceremonial purposes—perhaps to showcase individual leadership or heroism. Proposed in one of the papers in the journal Antiquity by Prof Jessica Rawson, cultural tradition like these appear more common on the steppe, but not within central China.
The presence of lacquer, a technology originating in southern China (particularly the Chu state), is another fascinating detail. The decoration of the chariots also tells us about the social hierarchy at play. The most elaborate chariots are adorned with gold and silver, while the less ornate ones feature bronze. These chariots, driven by individuals in front of an army, would have been awe-inspiring—reinforcing the steppe culture's emphasis on individuality and personal prestige, something that contrasts sharply with the more collective traditions of central China.
What's even more compelling is the evidence of Majiayuan's interactions with the states to the east, especially the powerful Qin state, which would eventually unify China. Among the artifacts found at Majiayuan is a duck-egg shaped vessel (Fig. 3), typical of the Qin, inscribed with the character "Yang"—a reference to Shang Yang, the famous reformer who transformed the Qin state and helped it rise to prominence.
Fig. 1 Ram-shaped gold ornament at Majiayuan
This connection points to the broader historical significance of Majiayuan. It suggests that the people there were not just a distant, isolated group; they were active participants in the larger political and cultural currents of the time.
Scholars have long speculated that the Majiayuan people were connected to the Western Rong, a group of semi-nomadic or pastoralist people mentioned in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian. Sima Qian, who did not have a high opinion of the Rong, described them as "birds and beasts," yet the extraordinary artifacts from Majiayuan challenge this simplistic view. If the Rong were indeed the people of Majiayuan, it suggests that their influence on Qin was far more significant than previously thought. The materials, technologies, and knowledge they brought with them could have given Qin crucial advantages, setting the stage for the rise of the First Emperor.
In this light, the Majiayuan site is not just an archaeological wonder; it's a lens through which we can reconsider the traditional narratives of Chinese history. It reminds us that the story of China’s unification wasn’t just about one culture overcoming another, but about a rich exchange of ideas, technologies, and peoples from all corners of the ancient world.